While Napoleon’s campaigns in Russia and elsewhere were tanking his ego, the other Allied armies weren't idle. The British had been leading the Peninsular War in Iberia since 1807, continuing to drain French resources and manpower. Not only was Napoleon facing Russia, Austria and Prussia the France's north-east, he was also holding off the coalition of Spain, Portugal and the United Kingdom in Iberia to France's south-west.
Often referred to as Napoleon’s 'Spanish ulcer', this conflict tied down hundreds of thousands of French troops. The aftermath of Napoleon's mistakes in 1813 hit the Emperor hard, but the Allied Coalition was just warming up.
In 1813 Arthur Wellesley, the 1st Duke of Wellington, finally succeeded in breaking French dominance in Spain, forcing the French to withdraw. Wellington, in a decisive strategic shift, relocated his supply base from Lisbon to Santander, allowing the Anglo-Portuguese forces to push northward.
The Last Years of the Peninsular War
In late May, 1813, these forces captured Burgos and outmanoeuvred the French, compelling Joseph Bonaparte to retreat into the valley of the River Zadorra. On June 21, 1813, at the Battle of Vitoria, Wellington's army of 53,000 British soldiers, supported by 27,000 Portuguese and 19,000 Spaniards, routed the 65,000-strong French force under Joseph Bonaparte.
The allied forces pursued the French, eventually forcing their retreat from San Sebastián, a city that was sacked and burned following a siege (the painting below shows the sacking of San Sebastián).
The Allies invade France
Pursuing the French into the Pyrenees by early July, Wellington’s forces faced resistance under Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, who had taken command of the French army.
Soult launched a counteroffensive and won two sharp victories against the allies at the Battles of Maya and Roncesvalles.
However, the French were soon on the defensive, and after the Battle of Sorauren (July 28 and 30), Soult was forced into a full retreat.
Wellington's victory in the Pyrenees was a testament to his skill, operating far from his supply lines and relying on a combination of tactical manoeuvres, rapid movements, and relentless pursuit of the French forces.
By October 7, 1813, following the reopening of hostilities in Germany, the Coalition armies crossed into France, fording the Bidasoa River and marking the invasion of French territory.
No one trusts a dictator...
On December 11, Napoleon recognised the deteriorating situation in Spain, agreeing to a separate peace with the Spanish government under the Treaty of Valençay.
In this treaty, Napoleon promised to release and recognise Ferdinand VII as the rightful king of Spain, hoping to end hostilities.
However, the Spanish, deeply mistrustful of Napoleon, refused to cease fighting, and the conflict continued into French territory.
The End...sort of...
During the closing months of 1813 and into 1814, Wellington (see the hot military veteran above - note that he wasn't a duke yet) led his peninsular army into the southwest of France, engaging in a series of battles against Marshals Soult and Suchet.
Wellington’s forces emerged victorious from key engagements, including the Battle of Vera Pass, the Battle of Nivelle, and the Battle of the Nive near Bayonne (December 10–14, 1813).
His forces continued their successes into the following year with decisive victories at the Battle of Orthez (February 27, 1814) and the Battle of Toulouse (April 10). Meanwhile, on the broader European front, Napoleon found himself increasingly on the defensive.
After retreating from Germany, the Emperor fought a series of engagements in France, including the Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. Despite issuing a decree for 900,000 new conscripts, only a fraction of these reinforcements materialised.
The Autocrat Deposed
In February 1814, Napoleon launched his famous Six Days’ Campaign, achieving multiple victories against numerically superior Allied forces advancing on Paris. Despite his successes, he commanded fewer than 80,000 troops against an overwhelming force of between 370,000 and 405,000 Coalition soldiers.
On March 9, 1814, the Treaty of Chaumont was signed, solidifying the Allied resolve to maintain their coalition until Napoleon's complete defeat. The Allied armies, having defeated the French forces outside Paris, entered the city on March 31.
Leading the army was Tsar Alexander I of Russia, followed by King Frederick William III of Prussia and Austrian commander Prince Schwarzenberg. On April 2, the French Senate passed the Acte de déchéance de l'Empereur, formally deposing Napoleon from power.
'Fight, fight, fight'
Despite his dire situation, Napoleon sought to continue the fight and proposed a march on Paris. While his rank-and-file soldiers and junior officers were still eager for battle, his marshals and senior officers mutinied. Some megalomaniacs don't know when to let go, do they? (They really, really, really never learn.)
On April 4, at Fontainebleau, Napoleon was confronted by his marshals, led by Michel Ney, who informed him that they would not support further military actions. Napoleon insisted that the army would follow him, to which Ney famously replied, "The army will obey its' chiefs."
Abdication & Exile
Napoleon abdicated on April 11, 1814, marking the official end of the Warof the Sixth Coalition, although sporadic fighting persisted into May.
The Treaty of Fontainebleau, signed the same day, established the terms for Napoleon’s abdication and his exile to the island of Elba. Napoeleon's exile allowed him a personal guard of 400 men (a bit too much like an army if you ask...er any of the British), and he wasn't a prisoner on Elba; he was established as its sovereign. This may well be why the British refused to sign this treaty. They did not trust Napoleon to settle down quietly - and can you blame them?
Nevertheless, the wars were thought to be over and in June 1814, Allied leaders attended peace celebrations in England, before proceeding to the Congress of Vienna, which commenced in September and continued through to June 1815. The Congress was tasked with redrawing the map of Europe and restoring order after the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars.
But wait - there's more (didn't I tell you they never learn??)
Sounds like a decent premise for a Regency romance, don't you think? (Stay with me. I have just the thing.)
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