Defeating tyranny isn't easy - but the nation-states of Europe were determined (and in some cases <cough> England <cough> getting desperate as well.)
We last left Napoleon facing a nearly united Europe - and to give the man credit, he wasn't the kind to run from a debate - sorry, I mean a fight. Having lost almost his entire army by December 1812 though, Napoleon barely made it back to France.
The Spring Campaign of 1813
In the aftermath of his catastrophic Russian campaign, Napoleon pledged to raise an army equal in size to the one he'd previously sent into Russia. He swiftly bolstered his eastern forces from 30,000 to 130,000 men, eventually amassing nearly 400,000. During the spring of 1813, he achieved victories over the Allied forces at Lützen on May 2 and Bautzen on May 20–21, inflicting some 40,000 casualties.
However, his own losses were nearly equivalent. Both battles, involving over 250,000 troops, were among the largest of the Napoleonic Wars up to that point. Meanwhile, on May 21, 1813, a Swedish corps of 15,000 under General Döbeln occupied Hamburg without orders from Crown Prince Bernadotte. This action, following Denmark’s declaration of support for Napoleon, tied Denmark firmly to France and ensured Sweden’s full cooperation in northern Germany. Although the Swedish occupation dealt a financial blow to Napoleon, it was short-lived.
Marshal Davout soon approached Hamburg with a force of 34,000 French troops, prompting the Swedes to withdraw on May 26. Davout would retain control of the city until after Napoleon's abdication in 1814.
The Armistice of Pläswitz:
Napoleon’s victories significantly demoralised the Prussian and Russian forces. The heavy casualties left both Allied armies in disarray. Allied resolve wavered, with some Russian officers eager to return home, having fulfilled their objective of expelling the French from Russia. Frederick William of Prussia, initially ambivalent about continuing the war, considered seeking peace after the defeats at Lützen and Bautzen.
Furthermore, both Prussia and Russia aimed to bring Austria into the conflict, hoping that a temporary cessation of hostilities would allow time for diplomatic efforts in Vienna. Another French victory might have secured favourable peace terms for Napoleon. The Allies were predisposed to peace and Austria, with its 150,000 troops, would not be likely to enter a conflict following a decisive French triumph.
Despite Napoleon’s tactical successes, the French army faced significant challenges. The newly conscripted forces were inexperienced, fatigued, and lacking essential resources. Even after the victories described above, the French cavalry's lack of horses prevented Napoleon from capitalising on his victories. This, combined with the army's exhaustion, led Napoleon to accept an armistice proposed by the Allies. This period of respite would prove more beneficial to the Allies than to Napoleon.
An Offended ally
The armistice, effective from June 4 to August 13, 1813, allowed both sides to recuperate after suffering nearly a quarter of a million casualties since April. During the armistice negotiations, Napoleon held a contentious interview with Austrian Chancellor Metternich. The French emperor harshly upbraided the Austrians and dramatically expressed his frustration at their failure to treat France - and him - with the deference he expected.
This alienated Austria and Napoleon's misstep ultimately contributed to Austria's decision to join the coalition against France. This incident may have been Napoleon's second most critical error (after the debacle in Russia), as the Allies gained more from the suspension of hostilities, and the anti-Napoleon sentiment among Austrian leaders. (Turns out, insulting your support base just when you might need it is a bad move - who knew?)
Diplomatic efforts on behalf of the Allies finally brought Austria into open opposition against France, transitioning from a nominal ally of Napoleon in 1812 to an armed neutral in early 1813. Austria now deployed two major armies in Bohemia and northern Italy, adding 300,000 troops to the Allied forces.
The Allies' strength in the German theatre grew to approximately 800,000 frontline troops, supplemented by a strategic reserve of 350,000. Napoleon’s initial advantage in manpower was diminished by the Austrians’ entry and Russia's vast footsoldier reserves.
Down, but not out:
Napoleon managed to raise his total imperial forces in the region to around 650,000. However, only 250,000 of these were under his direct command, with an additional 120,000 under General Oudinot and 30,000 under Marshal Davout. The Confederation of the Rhine, particularly Saxony and Bavaria, contributed the remainder of the French forces.
In southern Europe, Murat's Kingdom of Naples and Eugène de Beauharnais's Kingdom of Italy commanded a combined force of 100,000 men, while another 150,000–200,000 French troops were engaged in Spain, where they were steadily being pushed back by British and Spanish forces. Altogether, Napoleon commanded roughly 900,000 troops across all theatres, facing approximately one million Allied soldiers, not including the reserves being mobilised in Germany.
The Trachenberg Plan
During the armistice, three Allied sovereigns - Tsar Alexander of Russia, King Frederick William of Prussia, and Crown Prince Carl Johan of Sweden - met at Trachenberg Castle in Silesia to coordinate their strategy. Their military staff developed the 'Trachenberg Plan,' primarily authored by Carl Johan and Austrian Chief of Staff Joseph Radetzky. This strategy avoided direct confrontation with Napoleon and focused on defeating his marshals while gradually encircling the French forces. The plan aimed to wear down Napoleon’s forces, forcing him into a decisive battle against overwhelming odds.
By the end of the armistice, the Allies had organised their forces into three primary armies: the Army of Silesia, commanded by Field Marshal Gebhard von Blücher with 95,000 Prussian and Russian troops; the Army of the North, led by Crown Prince Carl Johan, comprising 120,000 Swedes, Russians, Prussians, and German troops; and the Army of Bohemia, the principal Allied force, with 225,000 Austrians, Russians, and Prussians, commanded by Prince Karl von Schwarzenberg.
The war was starting to get interesting…
Crown Prince Carl Johan of Sweden
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